Purpose-Driven Content

The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction

  • DePaulo, B. M., Kashy, D. A., Kirkendol, S. E., Wyer, M. M. & Epstein, J. A. Lying in everyday life. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 70, 979–995 (1996).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H. & Cook, J. Beyond misinformation: understanding and coping with the post-truth era. J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 6, 353–369 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Zarocostas, J. How to fight an infodemic. Lancet 395, 676 (2020).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lazer, D. M. J. et al. The science of fake news. Science 359, 1094–1096 (2018).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Bennett, W. L. & Livingston, S. The disinformation order: disruptive communication and the decline of democratic institutions. Eur. J. Commun. 33, 122–139 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Whitten-Woodring, J., Kleinberg, M. S., Thawnghmung, A. & Thitsar, M. T. Poison if you don’t know how to use it: Facebook, democracy, and human rights in Myanmar. Int. J. Press Politics 25, 407–425 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Roozenbeek, J. et al. Susceptibility to misinformation about COVID-19 around the world. R. Soc. Open Sci. 7, 201199 (2020).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Rich, J. in Private and Public Lies. The Discourse of Despotism and Deceit in the Graeco-Roman World (Impact of Empire 11) (eds Turner, A. J., Kim On Chong-Cossard, J. H. & Vervaet, F. J.) Vol. 11 167–191 (Brill Academic, 2010).

  • Hekster, O. in The Representation and Perception of Roman Imperial Power (eds. de Blois, L., Erdkamp, P., Hekster, O., de Kleijn, G. & Mols, S.) 20–35 (J. C. Gieben, 2013).

  • Herf, J. The Jewish War: Goebbels and the antisemitic campaigns of the Nazi propaganda ministry. Holocaust Genocide Stud. 19, 51–80 (2005).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Acerbi, A. Cognitive attraction and online misinformation. Palgrave Commun. 5, 15 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Kozyreva, A., Lewandowsky, S. & Hertwig, R. Citizens versus the internet: confronting digital challenges with cognitive tools. Psychol. Sci. Public Interest. 21, 103–156 (2020).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Barberá, P., Jost, J. T., Nagler, J., Tucker, J. A. & Bonneau, R. Tweeting from left to right: is online political communication more than an echo chamber? Psychol. Sci. 26, 1531–1542 (2015).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Del Vicario, M. et al. The spreading of misinformation online. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 113, 554–559 (2016).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Garrett, R. K. The echo chamber distraction: disinformation campaigns are the problem not audience fragmentation. J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 6, 370–376 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Vosoughi, S., Roy, D. & Aral, S. The spread of true and false news online. Science 359, 1146–1151 (2018).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Simis, M. J., Madden, H., Cacciatore, M. A. & Yeo, S. K. The lure of rationality: why does the deficit model persist in science communication? Public Underst. Sci. 25, 400–414 (2016).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N. M., Payne, B. K. & Marsh, E. J. Knowledge does not protect against illusory truth. J. Exp. Psychol. 144, 993–1002 (2015).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Hornsey, M. J. & Fielding, K. S. Attitude roots and jiu jitsu persuasion: understanding and overcoming the motivated rejection of science. Am. Psychol. 72, 459 (2017).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Nisbet, E. C., Cooper, K. E. & Garrett, R. K. The partisan brain: how dissonant science messages lead conservatives and liberals to (dis)trust science. Ann. Am. Acad. Political Soc. Sci. 658, 36–66 (2015).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Schmid, P. & Betsch, C. Effective strategies for rebutting science denialism in public discussions. Nat. Hum. Behav. 3, 931–939 (2019).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Hansson, S. O. Science denial as a form of pseudoscience. Stud. History Philos. Sci. A 63, 39–47 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Amin, A. B. et al. Association of moral values with vaccine hesitancy. Nat. Hum. Behav. 1, 873–880 (2017).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lewandowsky, S. & Oberauer, K. Motivated rejection of science. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 25, 217–222 (2016).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Trevors, G. & Duffy, M. C. Correcting COVID-19 misconceptions requires caution. Educ. Res. 49, 538–542 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Lewandowsky, S. Conspiracist cognition: chaos convenience, and cause for concern. J. Cult. Res. 25, 12–35 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Lewandowsky, S., Stritzke, W. G. K., Freund, A. M., Oberauer, K. & Krueger, J. I. Misinformation, disinformation, and violent conflict: from Iraq and the war on terror to future threats to peace. Am. Psychol. 68, 487–501 (2013).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Marsh, E. J., Cantor, A. D. & Brashier, N. M. Believing that humans swallow spiders in their sleep. Psychol. Learn. Motiv. 64, 93–132 (2016).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Rapp, D. N. The consequences of reading inaccurate information. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 25, 281–285 (2016).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Pantazi, M., Kissine, M. & Klein, O. The power of the truth bias: false information affects memory and judgment even in the absence of distraction. Soc. Cogn. 36, 167–198 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Brashier, N. M. & Marsh, E. J. Judging truth. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 71, 499–515 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Prike, T., Arnold, M. M. & Williamson, P. The relationship between anomalistic belief misperception of chance and the base rate fallacy. Think. Reason. 26, 447–477 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Uscinski, J. E. et al. Why do people believe COVID-19 conspiracy theories? Harv. Kennedy Sch. Misinformation Rev. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-015 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Dechêne, A., Stahl, C., Hansen, J. & Wänke, M. The truth about the truth: a meta-analytic review of the truth effect. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 14, 238–257 (2010).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Unkelbach, C., Koch, A., Silva, R. R. & Garcia-Marques, T. Truth by repetition: explanations and implications. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 28, 247–253 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Begg, I. M., Anas, A. & Farinacci, S. Dissociation of processes in belief: source recollection, statement familiarity, and the illusion of truth. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 121, 446–458 (1992).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Unkelbach, C. Reversing the truth effect: learning the interpretation of processing fluency in judgments of truth. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Memory Cogn. 33, 219–230 (2007).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Wang, W. C., Brashier, N. M., Wing, E. A., Marsh, E. J. & Cabeza, R. On known unknowns: fluency and the neural mechanisms of illusory truth. J. Cognit. Neurosci. 28, 739–746 (2016).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Unkelbach, C. & Rom, S. C. A referential theory of the repetition-induced truth effect. Cognition 160, 110–126 (2017).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Pennycook, G., Cannon, T. D. & Rand, D. G. Prior exposure increases perceived accuracy of fake news. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 147, 1865–1880 (2018).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Unkelbach, C. & Speckmann, F. Mere repetition increases belief in factually true COVID-19-related information. J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 10, 241–247 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Nadarevic, L., Reber, R., Helmecke, A. J. & Köse, D. Perceived truth of statements and simulated social media postings: an experimental investigation of source credibility, repeated exposure, and presentation format. Cognit. Res. Princ. Implic. 5, 56 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Fazio, L. K., Rand, D. G. & Pennycook, G. Repetition increases perceived truth equally for plausible and implausible statements. Psychonomic Bull. Rev. 26, 1705–1710 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Brown, A. S. & Nix, L. A. Turning lies into truths: referential validation of falsehoods. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Memory Cogn. 22, 1088–1100 (1996).


    Google Scholar
     

  • De keersmaecker, J. et al. Investigating the robustness of the illusory truth effect across individual differences in cognitive ability, need for cognitive closure, and cognitive style. Pers Soc. Psychol. Bull. 46, 204–215 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Unkelbach, C. & Greifeneder, R. Experiential fluency and declarative advice jointly inform judgments of truth. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 79, 78–86 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Fazio, L. K. Repetition increases perceived truth even for known falsehoods. Collabra Psychol. 6, 38 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Pennycook, G. & Rand, D. G. The psychology of fake news. Trends Cognit. Sci. 25, 388–402 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Murphy, G., Loftus, E. F., Grady, R. H., Levine, L. J. & Greene, C. M. False memories for fake news during Ireland’s abortion referendum. Psychol. Sci. 30, 1449–1459 (2019).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Pennycook, G. & Rand, D. G. Lazy, not biased: susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. Cognition 188, 39–50 (2019).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Stanley, M. L., Barr, N., Peters, K. & Seli, P. Analytic-thinking predicts hoax beliefs and helping behaviors in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Think. Reas. 27, 464–477 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Bago, B., Rand, D. G. & Pennycook, G. Fake news, fast and slow: deliberation reduces belief in false (but not true) news headlines. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 149, 1608–1613 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Brashier, N. M., Eliseev, E. D. & Marsh, E. J. An initial accuracy focus prevents illusory truth. Cognition 194, 104054 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Briñol, P. & Petty, R. E. Source factors in persuasion: a self-validation approach. Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol. 20, 49–96 (2009).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Mackie, D. M., Worth, L. T. & Asuncion, A. G. Processing of persuasive in-group messages. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 58, 812–822 (1990).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Mahmoodi, A. et al. Equality bias impairs collective decision-making across cultures. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 112, 3835–3840 (2015).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Marks, G. & Miller, N. Ten years of research on the false-consensus effect: an empirical and theoretical review. Psychol. Bull. 102, 72–90 (1987).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Brulle, R. J., Carmichael, J. & Jenkins, J. C. Shifting public opinion on climate change: an empirical assessment of factors influencing concern over climate change in the U.S. 2002–2010. Clim. Change 114, 169–188 (2012).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Lachapelle, E., Montpetit, É. & Gauvin, J.-P. Public perceptions of expert credibility on policy issues: the role of expert framing and political worldviews. Policy Stud. J. 42, 674–697 (2014).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Dada, S., Ashworth, H. C., Bewa, M. J. & Dhatt, R. Words matter: political and gender analysis of speeches made by heads of government during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Glob. Health 6, e003910 (2021).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Chung, M. & Jones-Jang, S. M. Red media, blue media, Trump briefings, and COVID-19: examining how information sources predict risk preventive behaviors via threat and efficacy. Health Commun. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2021.1914386 (2021).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Mitchell, K. J. & Johnson, M. K. Source monitoring 15 years later: what have we learned from fMRI about the neural mechanisms of source memory? Psychol. Bull. 135, 638–677 (2009).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Dias, N., Pennycook, G. & Rand, D. G. Emphasizing publishers does not effectively reduce susceptibility to misinformation on social media. Harv. Kennedy Sch. Misinformation Rev. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-001 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Pennycook, G. & Rand, D. G. Fighting misinformation on social media using crowdsourced judgments of news source quality. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116, 2521–2526 (2019).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Altay, S., Hacquin, A.-S. & Mercier, H. Why do so few people share fake news? It hurts their reputation. N. Media Soc. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820969893 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Rahhal, T. A., May, C. P. & Hasher, L. Truth and character: sources that older adults can remember. Psychol. Sci. 13, 101–105 (2002).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Grinberg, N., Joseph, K., Friedland, L., Swire-Thompson, B. & Lazer, D. Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Science 363, 374–378 (2019).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Stanford University Center for an Informed Public, Digital Forensic Research Lab, Graphika, & Stanford Internet Observatory. The long fuse: misinformation and the 2020 election. Stanford Digital Repository https://purl.stanford.edu/tr171zs0069 (2021).

  • Jones, M. O. Disinformation superspreaders: the weaponisation of COVID-19 fake news in the Persian Gulf and beyond. Glob. Discourse 10, 431–437 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Tannenbaum, M. B. et al. Appealing to fear: a meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories. Psychol. Bull. 141, 1178–1204 (2015).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Altay, S. & Mercier, H. Happy thoughts: the role of communion in accepting and sharing epistemically suspect beliefs. psyarxiv https://psyarxiv.com/3s4nr/ (2020).

  • Rocklage, M. D., Rucker, D. D. & Nordgren, L. F. Persuasion, emotion, and language: the intent to persuade transforms language via emotionality. Psychol. Sci. 29, 749–760 (2018).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Chou, W.-Y. S. & Budenz, A. Considering emotion in COVID-19 vaccine communication: addressing vaccine hesitancy and fostering vaccine confidence. Health Commun. 35, 1718–1722 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Baum, J. & Abdel, R. R. Emotional news affects social judgments independent of perceived media credibility. Soc. Cognit. Affect. Neurosci. 16, 280–291 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Kim, H., Park, K. & Schwarz, N. Will this trip really be exciting? The role of incidental emotions in product evaluation. J. Consum. Res. 36, 983–991 (2010).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Forgas, J. P. Happy believers and sad skeptics? Affective influences on gullibility. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 28, 306–313 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Martel, C., Pennycook, G. & Rand, D. G. Reliance on emotion promotes belief in fake news. Cognit. Res. Princ. Implic. 5, 47 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Forgas, J. P. & East, R. On being happy and gullible: mood effects on skepticism and the detection of deception. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 44, 1362–1367 (2008).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Koch, A. S. & Forgas, J. P. Feeling good and feeling truth: the interactive effects of mood and processing fluency on truth judgments. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 48, 481–485 (2012).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Forgas, J. P. Don’t worry be sad! On the cognitive, motivational, and interpersonal benefits of negative mood. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 22, 225–232 (2013).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Weeks, B. E. Emotions, partisanship, and misperceptions: how anger and anxiety moderate the effect of partisan bias on susceptibility to political misinformation. J. Commun. 65, 699–719 (2015).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Han, J., Cha, M. & Lee, W. Anger contributes to the spread of COVID-19 misinformation. Harv. Kennedy Sch. Misinformation Rev. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-39 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Graeupner, D. & Coman, A. The dark side of meaning-making: how social exclusion leads to superstitious thinking. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 69, 218–222 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Poon, K.-T., Chen, Z. & Wong, W.-Y. Beliefs in conspiracy theories following ostracism. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 46, 1234–1246 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Johnson, H. M. & Seifert, C. M. Sources of the continued influence effect: when misinformation in memory affects later inferences. J. Exp. Psychol. Lear. Memory Cogn. 20, 1420–1436 (1994).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Chan, M.-P. S., Jones, C. R., Jamieson, K. H. & Albarracín, D. Debunking: a meta-analysis of the psychological efficacy of messages countering misinformation. Psychol. Sci. 28, 1531–1546 (2017).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Walter, N. & Murphy, S. T. How to unring the bell: a meta-analytic approach to correction of misinformation. Commun. Monogr. 85, 423–441 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Walter, N. & Tukachinsky, R. A meta-analytic examination of the continued influence of misinformation in the face of correction: how powerful is it, why does it happen, and how to stop it? Commun. Res. 47, 155–177 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N. & Cook, J. Misinformation and its correction: continued influence and successful debiasing. Psychol.Sci. Public. Interest. 13, 106–131 (2012).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Barrera, O., Guriev, S., Henry, E. & Zhuravskaya, E. Facts, alternative facts, and fact checking in times of post-truth politics. J. Public. Econ. 182, 104123 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Swire, B., Berinsky, A. J., Lewandowsky, S. & Ecker, U. K. H. Processing political misinformation: comprehending the Trump phenomenon. R. Soc. Open. Sci. 4, 160802 (2017).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Swire, B., Ecker, U. K. H. & Lewandowsky, S. The role of familiarity in correcting inaccurate information. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Memory Cogn. 43, 1948–1961 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Hamby, A., Ecker, U. K. H. & Brinberg, D. How stories in memory perpetuate the continued influence of false information. J. Consum. Psychol. 30, 240–259 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • MacFarlane, D., Tay, L. Q., Hurlstone, M. J. & Ecker, U. K. H. Refuting spurious COVID-19 treatment claims reduces demand and misinformation sharing. J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 10, 248–258 (2021).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Tay, L. Q., Hurlstone, M. J., Kurz, T. & Ecker, U. K. H. A comparison of prebunking and debunking interventions for implied versus explicit misinformation. Brit. J. Psychol. (in the press).

  • Nyhan, B., Reifler, J., Richey, S. & Freed, G. L. Effective messages in vaccine promotion: a randomized trial. Pediatrics 133, e835–e842 (2014).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Poland, G. A. & Spier, R. Fear misinformation, and innumerates: how the Wakefield paper, the press, and advocacy groups damaged the public health. Vaccine 28, 2361–2362 (2010).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lewandowsky, S., Stritzke, W. G. K., Oberauer, K. & Morales, M. Memory for fact, fiction, and misinformation. Psychol. Sci. 16, 190–195 (2005).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S. & Tang, D. T. W. Explicit warnings reduce but do not eliminate the continued influence of misinformation. Mem. Cogn. 38, 1087–1100 (2010).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Kendeou, P., Walsh, E. K., Smith, E. R. & OBrien, E. J. Knowledge revision processes in refutation texts. Discourse Process. 51, 374–397 (2014).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Shtulman, A. & Valcarcel, J. Scientific knowledge suppresses but does not supplant earlier intuitions. Cognition 124, 209–215 (2012).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kendeou, P., Butterfuss, R., Kim, J. & Boekel, M. V. Knowledge revision through the lenses of the three-pronged approach. Mem. Cogn. 47, 33–46 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Ithisuphalap, J., Rich, P. R. & Zaragoza, M. S. Does evaluating belief prior to its retraction influence the efficacy of later corrections? Memory 28, 617–631 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ecker, U. K. H., Hogan, J. L. & Lewandowsky, S. Reminders and repetition of misinformation: helping or hindering its retraction? J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 6, 185–192 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Brydges, C. R., Gignac, G. E. & Ecker, U. K. H. Working memory capacity, short-term memory capacity, and the continued influence effect: a latent-variable analysis. Intelligence 69, 117–122 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Sanderson, J. A., Gignac, G. E. & Ecker, U. K. H. Working memory capacity, removal efficiency and event specific memory as predictors of misinformation reliance. J. Cognit. Psychol. 33, 518–532 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Swire, B. & Chang, D. Correcting false information in memory: manipulating the strength of misinformation encoding and its retraction. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 18, 570–578 (2011).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Yonelinas, A. P. The nature of recollection and familiarity: Aa review of 30 years of research. J. Mem. Lang. 46, 441–517 (2002).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Butterfuss, R. & Kendeou, P. Reducing interference from misconceptions: the role of inhibition in knowledge revision. J. Educ. Psychol. 112, 782–794 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Brydges, C. R., Gordon, A. & Ecker, U. K. H. Electrophysiological correlates of the continued influence effect of misinformation: an exploratory study. J. Cognit. Psychol. 32, 771–784 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Gordon, A., Quadflieg, S., Brooks, J. C. W., Ecker, U. K. H. & Lewandowsky, S. Keeping track of ‘alternative facts’: the neural correlates of processing misinformation corrections. NeuroImage 193, 46–56 (2019).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ecker, U. K. H., O’Reilly, Z., Reid, J. S. & Chang, E. P. The effectiveness of short-format refutational fact-checks. Br. J. Psychol. 111, 36–54 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • van der Meer, T. G. L. A. & Jin, Y. Seeking formula for misinformation treatment in public health crises: the effects of corrective information type and source. Health Commun. 35, 560–575 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wintersieck, A., Fridkin, K. & Kenney, P. The message matters: the influence of fact-checking on evaluations of political messages. J. Political Mark. 20, 93–120 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Amazeen, M. & Krishna, A. Correcting vaccine misinformation: recognition and effects of source type on misinformation via perceived motivations and credibility. SSRN https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3698102 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Vraga, E. K. & Bode, L. I do not believe you: how providing a source corrects health misperceptions across social media platforms. Inf. Commun. Soc. 21, 1337–1353 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Ecker, U. K. H. & Antonio, L. M. Can you believe it? An investigation into the impact of retraction source credibility on the continued influence effect. Mem. Cogn. 49, 631–644 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Guillory, J. J. & Geraci, L. Correcting erroneous inferences in memory: the role of source credibility. J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 2, 201–209 (2013).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Vraga, E. K. & Bode, L. Using expert sources to correct health misinformation in social media. Sci. Commun. 39, 621–645 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Zhang, J., Featherstone, J. D., Calabrese, C. & Wojcieszak, M. Effects of fact-checking social media vaccine misinformation on attitudes toward vaccines. Prev. Med. 145, 106408 (2021).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Connor Desai, S. A., Pilditch, T. D. & Madsen, J. K. The rational continued influence of misinformation. Cognition 205, 104453 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • O’Rear, A. E. & Radvansky, G. A. Failure to accept retractions: a contribution to the continued influence effect. Mem. Cogn. 48, 127–144 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Ecker, U. K. H. & Ang, L. C. Political attitudes and the processing of misinformation corrections. Political Psychol. 40, 241–260 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Nyhan, B. & Reifler, J. When corrections fail: the persistence of political misperceptions. Political Behav. 32, 303–330 (2010).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Trevors, G. The roles of identity conflict, emotion, and threat in learning from refutation texts on vaccination and immigration. Discourse Process. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163853X.2021.1917950 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Prasad, M. et al. There must be a reason: Osama, Saddam, and inferred justification. Sociol. Inq. 79, 142–162 (2009).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Amazeen, M. A., Thorson, E., Muddiman, A. & Graves, L. Correcting political and consumer misperceptions: the effectiveness and effects of rating scale versus contextual correction formats. J. Mass. Commun. Q. 95, 28–48 (2016).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Ecker, U. K. H., Sze, B. K. N. & Andreotta, M. Corrections of political misinformation: no evidence for an effect of partisan worldview in a US convenience sample. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B: Biol. Sci. 376, 20200145 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Nyhan, B., Porter, E., Reifler, J. & Wood, T. J. Taking fact-checks literally but not seriously? The effects of journalistic fact-checking on factual beliefs and candidate favorability. Political Behav. 42, 939–960 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Wood, T. & Porter, E. The elusive backfire effect: mass attitudes’ steadfast factual adherence. Political Behav. 41, 135–163 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Yang, Q., Qureshi, K. & Zaman, T. Mitigating the backfire effect using pacing and leading. arxiv https://arxiv.org/abs/2008.00049 (2020).

  • Susmann, M. W. & Wegener, D. T. The role of discomfort in the continued influence effect of misinformation. Memory Cogn. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-021-01232-8 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Cobb, M. D., Nyhan, B. & Reifler, J. Beliefs don’t always persevere: how political figures are punished when positive information about them is discredited. Political Psychol. 34, 307–326 (2013).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Thorson, E. Belief echoes: the persistent effects of corrected misinformation. Political Commun. 33, 460–480 (2016).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Jaffé, M. E. & Greifeneder, R. Negative is true here and now but not so much there and then. Exp. Psychol. 67, 314–326 (2020).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ecker, U. K. H. & Rodricks, A. E. Do false allegations persist? Retracted misinformation does not continue to influence explicit person impressions. J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 9, 587–601 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S. & Apai, J. Terrorists brought down the plane! No actually it was a technical fault: processing corrections of emotive information. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 64, 283–310 (2011).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Trevors, G., Bohn-Gettler, C. & Kendeou, P. The effects of experimentally induced emotions on revising common vaccine misconceptions. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218211017840 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Chang, E. P., Ecker, U. K. H. & Page, A. C. Not wallowing in misery — retractions of negative misinformation are effective in depressive rumination. Cogn. Emot. 33, 991–1005 (2019).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sangalang, A., Ophir, Y. & Cappella, J. N. The potential for narrative correctives to combat misinformation. J. Commun. 69, 298–319 (2019).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Featherstone, J. D. & Zhang, J. Feeling angry: the effects of vaccine misinformation and refutational messages on negative emotions and vaccination attitude. J. Health Commun. 25, 692–702 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Brashier, N. M., Pennycook, G., Berinsky, A. J. & Rand, D. G. Timing matters when correcting fake news. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 118, e2020043118 (2021).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Cook, J., Lewandowsky, S. & Ecker, U. K. H. Neutralizing misinformation through inoculation: exposing misleading argumentation techniques reduces their influence. PLoS ONE 12, e0175799 (2017).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Hughes, M. G. et al. Discrediting in a message board forum: the effects of social support and attacks on expertise and trustworthiness. J. Comput. Mediat. Commun. 19, 325–341 (2014).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Paynter, J. et al. Evaluation of a template for countering misinformation — real-world autism treatment myth debunking. PLoS ONE 14, e0210746 (2019).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Jolley, D. & Douglas, K. M. Prevention is better than cure: addressing anti-vaccine conspiracy theories. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 47, 459–469 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Vraga, E. K., Kim, S. C., Cook, J. & Bode, L. Testing the effectiveness of correction placement and type on Instagram. Int. J. Press Politics 25, 632–652 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Clayton, K. et al. Real solutions for fake news? Measuring the effectiveness of general warnings and fact-check tags in reducing belief in false stories on social media. Political Behav. 42, 1073–1095 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Dai, Y., Yu, W. & Shen, F. The effects of message order and debiasing information in misinformation correction. Int. J. Commun. 15, 21 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Swire-Thompson, B. et al. Evidence for a limited role of correction format when debunking misinformation. OSF https://osf.io/udny9/ (2021).

  • Gordon, A., Ecker, U. K. H. & Lewandowsky, S. Polarity and attitude effects in the continued-influence paradigm. J. Mem. Lang. 108, 104028 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Grady, R. H., Ditto, P. H. & Loftus, E. F. Nevertheless partisanship persisted: fake news warnings help briefly, but bias returns with time. Cogn. Res. Princ. Implic. 6, 52 (2021).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Schmid, P., Schwarzer, M. & Betsch, C. Weight-of-evidence strategies to mitigate the influence of messages of science denialism in public discussions. J. Cogn. 3, 36 (2020).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Compton, J., van der Linden, S., Cook, J. & Basol, M. Inoculation theory in the post-truth era: extant findings and new frontiers for contested science misinformation, and conspiracy theories. Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass 15, e12602 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Lewandowsky, S. & van der Linden, S. Countering misinformation and fake news through inoculation and prebunking. Eur. Rev. Soc. Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2021.1876983 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Roozenbeek, J., van der Linden, S. & Nygren, T. Prebunking interventions based on the psychological theory of inoculation can reduce susceptibility to misinformation across cultures. Harv. Kennedy Sch. Misinformation Rev. https://doi.org/10.37016//mr-2020-008 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Maertens, R., Roozenbeek, J., Basol, M. & van der Linden, S. Long-term effectiveness of inoculation against misinformation: three longitudinal experiments. J. Exp. Psychol. Appl. 27, 1–16 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A., Rosenthal, S. & Maibach, E. Inoculating the public against misinformation about climate change. Glob. Chall. 1, 1600008 (2017).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Parker, K. A., Ivanov, B. & Compton, J. Inoculation’s efficacy with young adults’ risky behaviors: can inoculation confer cross-protection over related but untreated issues? Health Commun. 27, 223–233 (2012).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lewandowsky, S. & Yesilada, M. Inoculating against the spread of Islamophobic and radical-Islamist disinformation. Cognit. Res. Princ. Implic. 6, 57 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Ivanov, B. et al. The general content of postinoculation talk: recalled issue-specific conversations following inoculation treatments. West. J. Commun. 79, 218–238 (2015).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Amazeen, M. A. & Vargo, C. J. Sharing native advertising on Twitter: content analyses examining disclosure practices and their inoculating influence. Journal. Stud. 22, 916–933 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Jones-Jang, S. M., Mortensen, T. & Liu, J. Does media literacy help identification of fake news? Information literacy helps but other literacies don’t. Am. Behav. Sci. 65, 371–388 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Khan, M. L. & Idris, I. K. Recognise misinformation and verify before sharing: a reasoned action and information literacy perspective. Behav. Inf. Technol. 38, 1194–1212 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Machete, P. & Turpin, M. The use of critical thinking to identify fake news: a systematic literature review. Lecture Notes Comput. Sci. 12067, 235–246 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Vraga, E. K., Tully, M., Maksl, A., Craft, S. & Ashley, S. Theorizing news literacy behaviors. Commun. Theory 31, 1–21 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Wineburg, S., McGrew, S., Breakstone, J. & Ortega, T. Evaluating information: the cornerstone of civic online reasoning. SDR https://purl.stanford.edu/fv751yt5934 (2016).

  • Breakstone, J. et al. Lateral reading: college students learn to critically evaluate internet sources in an online course. Harv. Kennedy Sch. Misinformation Rev. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-56 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Choy, M. & Chong, M. Seeing through misinformation: a framework for identifying fake online news. arxiv https://arxiv.org/abs/1804.03508 (2018).

  • Amazeen, M. A. & Bucy, E. P. Conferring resistance to digital disinformation: the inoculating influence of procedural news knowledge. J. Broadcasting Electron. Media 63, 415–432 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Guess, A. M. et al. A digital media literacy intervention increases discernment between mainstream and false news in the United States and India. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 117, 15536–15545 (2020).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Hameleers, M. Separating truth from lies: comparing the effects of news media literacy interventions and fact-checkers in response to political misinformation in the US and Netherlands. Inf. Commun. Soc. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118x.2020.1764603 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Tully, M., Vraga, E. K. & Bode, L. Designing and testing news literacy messages for social media. Mass. Commun. Soc. 23, 22–46 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Roozenbeek, J. & van der Linden, S. Fake news game confers psychological resistance against online misinformation. Palgrave Commun. 5, 65 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Roozenbeek, J. & van der Linden, S. Breaking Harmony Square: a game that inoculates against political misinformation. Harv. Kennedy Sch. Misinformation Rev. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-47 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Micallef, N., Avram, M., Menczer, F. & Patil, S. Fakey. Proc. ACM Human Comput. Interact. 5, 1–27 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Katsaounidou, A., Vrysis, L., Kotsakis, R., Dimoulas, C. & Veglis, A. MAthE the game: a serious game for education and training in news verification. Educ. Sci. 9, 155 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Mihailidis, P. & Viotty, S. Spreadable spectacle in digital culture: civic expression, fake news, and the role of media literacies in post-fact society. Am. Behav. Sci. 61, 441–454 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Carnahan, D., Bergan, D. E. & Lee, S. Do corrective effects last? Results from a longitudinal experiment on beliefs toward immigration in the U.S. Political Behav. 43, 1227–1246 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Wintersieck, A. L. Debating the truth. Am. Politics Res. 45, 304–331 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Mosleh, M., Martel, C., Eckles, D. & Rand, D. in Proc. 2021 CHI Conf. Human Factors Computing Systems 2688–2700 (ACM, 2021).

  • Swire-Thompson, B., Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S. & Berinsky, A. J. They might be a liar but they’re my liar: source evaluation and the prevalence of misinformation. Political Psychol. 41, 21–34 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Lewandowsky, S. et al. The Debunking Handbook 2020 (George Mason Univ., 2020)

  • Kendeou, P., Smith, E. R. & O’Brien, E. J. Updating during reading comprehension: why causality matters. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Memory Cogn. 39, 854–865 (2013).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Schwarz, N., Newman, E. & Leach, W. Making the truth stick & the myths fade: lessons from cognitive psychology. Behav. Sci. Policy 2, 85–95 (2016).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Van Boekel, M., Lassonde, K. A., O’Brien, E. J. & Kendeou, P. Source credibility and the processing of refutation texts. Mem. Cogn. 45, 168–181 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Margolin, D. B., Hannak, A. & Weber, I. Political fact-checking on Twitter: when do corrections have an effect? Political Commun. 35, 196–219 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Schultz, P. W., Nolan, J. M., Cialdini, R. B., Goldstein, N. J. & Griskevicius, V. The constructive, destructive, and reconstructive power of social norms. Psychol. Sci. 18, 429–434 (2007).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Chinn, S., Lane, D. S. & Hart, P. S. In consensus we trust? Persuasive effects of scientific consensus communication. Public Underst. Sci. 27, 807–823 (2018).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lewandowsky, S., Gignac, G. E. & Vaughan, S. The pivotal role of perceived scientific consensus in acceptance of science. Nat. Clim. Change 3, 399–404 (2013).


    Google Scholar
     

  • van der Linden, S. L., Clarke, C. E. & Maibach, E. W. Highlighting consensus among medical scientists increases public support for vaccines: evidence from a randomized experiment. BMC Public Health 15, 1207 (2015).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A. & Maibach, E. Scientific agreement can neutralize politicization of facts. Nat. Hum. Behav. 2, 2–3 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Vlasceanu, M. & Coman, A. The impact of social norms on health-related belief update. Appl. Psychol. Health Well-Being https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12313 (2021).

  • Nyhan, B. & Reifler, J. The roles of information deficits and identity threat in the prevalence of misperceptions. J. Elect. Public Opin. Parties 29, 222–244 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Danielson, R. W., Sinatra, G. M. & Kendeou, P. Augmenting the refutation text effect with analogies and graphics. Discourse Process. 53, 392–414 (2016).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Dixon, G. N., McKeever, B. W., Holton, A. E., Clarke, C. & Eosco, G. The power of a picture: overcoming scientific misinformation by communicating weight-of-evidence information with visual exemplars. J. Commun. 65, 639–659 (2015).


    Google Scholar
     

  • van der Linden, S. L., Leiserowitz, A. A., Feinberg, G. D. & Maibach, E. W. How to communicate the scientific consensus on climate change: plain facts, pie charts or metaphors? Clim. Change 126, 255–262 (2014).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Steffens, M. S., Dunn, A. G., Wiley, K. E. & Leask, J. How organisations promoting vaccination respond to misinformation on social media: a qualitative investigation. BMC Public Health 19, 1348 (2019).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Hyland-Wood, B., Gardner, J., Leask, J. & Ecker, U. K. H. Toward effective government communication strategies in the era of COVID-19. Humanit. Soc. Sci. Commun. 8, 30 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Sherman, D. K. & Cohen, G. L. Accepting threatening information: self-affirmation and the reduction of defensive biases. Curr. Direct. Psychol. Sci. 11, 119–123 (2002).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Carnahan, D., Hao, Q., Jiang, X. & Lee, H. Feeling fine about being wrong: the influence of self-affirmation on the effectiveness of corrective information. Hum. Commun. Res. 44, 274–298 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Vraga, E. K. & Bode, L. Correction as a solution for health misinformation on social media. Am. J. Public Health 110, S278–S280 (2020).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Bode, L. & Vraga, E. K. In related news, that was wrong: the correction of misinformation through related stories functionality in social media. J. Commun. 65, 619–638 (2015).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Vraga, E. K. & Bode, L. Addressing COVID-19 misinformation on social media preemptively and responsively. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 27, 396–403 (2021).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Vijaykumar, S. et al. How shades of truth and age affect responses to COVID-19 (mis)information: randomized survey experiment among WhatsApp users in UK and Brazil. Humanit. Soc. Sci.Commun. 8, 88 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Bode, L. & Vraga, E. K. See something say something: correction of global health misinformation on social media. Health Commun. 33, 1131–1140 (2017).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Pennycook, G. et al. Shifting attention to accuracy can reduce misinformation online. Nature 592, 590–595 (2021).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Matz, S. C., Kosinski, M., Nave, G. & Stillwell, D. J. Psychological targeting as an effective approach to digital mass persuasion. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114, 12714–12719 (2017).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Vargo, C. J., Guo, L. & Amazeen, M. A. The agenda-setting power of fake news: a big data analysis of the online media landscape from 2014 to 2016. N. Media Soc. 20, 2028–2049 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Allington, D., Duffy, B., Wessely, S., Dhavan, N. & Rubin, J. Health-protective behavior, social media usage and conspiracy belief during the COVID-19 public health emergency. Psychol. Med. 51, 1763–1769 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Cook, J., Bedford, D. & Mandia, S. Raising climate literacy through addressing misinformation: case studies in agnotology-based learning. J. Geosci. Educ. 62, 296–306 (2014).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Amazeen, M. A. News in an era of content confusion: effects of news use motivations and context on native advertising and digital news perceptions. Journal. Mass. Commun. Q. 97, 161–187 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Lawrence, R. G. & Boydstun, A. E. What we should really be asking about media attention to Trump. Political Commun. 34, 150–153 (2016).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Schmid, P., MacDonald, N. E., Habersaat, K. & Butler, R. Commentary to: How to respond to vocal vaccine deniers in public. Vaccine 36, 196–198 (2018).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Shelby, A. & Ernst, K. Story and science. Hum. Vaccines Immunother. 9, 1795–1801 (2013).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Lazić, A. & Žeželj, I. A systematic review of narrative interventions: lessons for countering anti-vaccination conspiracy theories and misinformation. Public Underst. Sci. 30, 644–670 (2021).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ecker, U. K. H., Butler, L. H. & Hamby, A. You don’t have to tell a story! A registered report testing the effectiveness of narrative versus non-narrative misinformation corrections. Cognit. Res. Princ. Implic. 5, 64 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Van Bavel, J. J., Reinero, D. A., Spring, V., Harris, E. A. & Duke, A. Speaking my truth: why personal experiences can bridge divides but mislead. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 118, e2100280118 (2021).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Merpert, A., Furman, M., Anauati, M. V., Zommer, L. & Taylor, I. Is that even checkable? An experimental study in identifying checkable statements in political discourse. Commun. Res. Rep. 35, 48–57 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Amazeen, M. A. & Wojdynski, B. W. Reducing native advertising deception: revisiting the antecedents and consequences of persuasion knowledge in digital news contexts. Mass. Commun. Soc. 22, 222–247 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Peacock, C., Masullo, G. M. & Stroud, N. J. What’s in a label? The effect of news labels on perceived credibility. Journalism https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884920971522 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S. & Chadwick, M. Can corrections spread misinformation to new audiences? Testing for the elusive familiarity backfire effect. Cognit. Res. Princ. Implic. 5, 41 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • McCright, A. M. & Dunlap, R. E. Combatting misinformation requires recognizing its types and the factors that facilitate its spread and resonance. J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 6, 389–396 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Oreskes, N. & Conway, E. M. Defeating the merchants of doubt. Nature 465, 686–687 (2010).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Golovchenko, Y., Hartmann, M. & Adler-Nissen, R. State media and civil society in the information warfare over Ukraine: citizen curators of digital disinformation. Int. Aff. 94, 975–994 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Tandoc, E. C., Lim, Z. W. & Ling, R. Defining fake news. Digit. Journal. 6, 137–153 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Mosleh, M., Pennycook, G., Arechar, A. A. & Rand, D. G. Cognitive reflection correlates with behavior on Twitter. Nat. Commun. 12, 921 (2021).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Scheufele, D. A. & Krause, N. M. Science audiences misinformation, and fake news. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116, 7662–7669 (2019).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Yesilada, M. & Lewandowsky, S. A systematic review: the YouTube recommender system and pathways to problematic content. psyarxiv https://psyarxiv.com/6pv5c/ (2021).

  • Bursztyn, L., Rao, A., Roth, C. & Yanagizawa-Drott, D. Misinformation during a pandemic. NBER https://www.nber.org/papers/w27417 (2020).

  • Simonov, A., Sacher, S., Dubé, J.-P. & Biswas, S. The persuasive effect of Fox News: non-compliance with social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic. NBER https://www.nber.org/papers/w27237 (2020).

  • Bechmann, A. Tackling disinformation and infodemics demands media policy changes. Digit. Journal. 8, 855–863 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Marsden, C., Meyer, T. & Brown, I. Platform values and democratic elections: how can the law regulate digital disinformation? Comput. Law Security Rev. 36, 105373 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Saurwein, F. & Spencer-Smith, C. Combating disinformation on social media: multilevel governance and distributed accountability in Europe. Digit. Journal. 8, 820–841 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Tenove, C. Protecting democracy from disinformation: normative threats and policy responses. Int. J. Press Politics 25, 517–537 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Reisach, U. The responsibility of social media in times of societal and political manipulation. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 291, 906–917 (2021).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lewandowsky, S. et al. Technology and democracy: understanding the influence of online technologies on political behaviour and decision-making. Publ. Office Eur. Union https://doi.org/10.2760/593478 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Blasio, E. D. & Selva, D. Who is responsible for disinformation? European approaches to social platforms’ accountability in the post-truth era. Am. Behav. Scientist 65, 825–846 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Pickard, V. Restructuring democratic infrastructures: a policy approach to the journalism crisis. Digit. J. 8, 704–719 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Barzilai, S. & Chinn, C. A. A review of educational responses to the post-truth condition: four lenses on post-truth problems. Educ. Psychol. 55, 107–119 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Lee, N. M. Fake news, phishing, and fraud: a call for research on digital media literacy education beyond the classroom. Commun. Educ. 67, 460–466 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Sinatra, G. M. & Lombardi, D. Evaluating sources of scientific evidence and claims in the post-truth era may require reappraising plausibility judgments. Educ. Psychol. 55, 120–131 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Vraga, E. K. & Bode, L. Leveraging institutions, educators, and networks to correct misinformation: a commentary on Lewandowsky, Ecker, and Cook. J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 6, 382–388 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Lorenz-Spreen, P., Lewandowsky, S., Sunstein, C. R. & Hertwig, R. How behavioural sciences can promote truth, autonomy and democratic discourse online. Nat. Hum. Behav. 4, 1102–1109 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Tsipursky, G., Votta, F. & Mulick, J. A. A psychological approach to promoting truth in politics: the pro-truth pledge. J. Soc. Political Psychol. 6, 271–290 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Bak-Coleman, J. B. et al. Combining interventions to reduce the spread of viral misinformation. OSF https://osf.io/preprints/socarxiv/4jtvm/ (2021).

  • Ognyanova, K., Lazer, D., Robertson, R. E. & Wilson, C. Misinformation in action: fake news exposure is linked to lower trust in media, higher trust in government when your side is in power. Harv. Kennedy Sch. Misinformation Rev. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-024 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Swire-Thompson, B. & Lazer, D. Public health and online misinformation: challenges and recommendations. Annu. Rev. Public Health 41, 433–451 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Boele-Woelki, K., Francisco, J. S., Hahn, U. & Herz, J. How we can rebuild trust in science and why we must. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 57, 13696–13697 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Klein, O. et al. A practical guide for transparency in psychological science. Collabra Psychol. 4, 20 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Masullo, G. M., Curry, A. L., Whipple, K. N. & Murray, C. The story behind the story: examining transparency about the journalistic process and news outlet credibility. Journal. Pract. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2020.1870529 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Amazeen, M. A. Checking the fact-checkers in 2008: predicting political ad scrutiny and assessing consistency. J. Political Mark. 15, 433–464 (2014).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Hahl, O., Kim, M. & Sivan, E. W. Z. The authentic appeal of the lying demagogue: proclaiming the deeper truth about political illegitimacy. Am. Sociol. Rev. 83, 1–33 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Jaiswal, J., LoSchiavo, C. & Perlman, D. C. Disinformation, misinformation and inequality-driven mistrust in the time of COVID-19: lessons unlearned from AIDS denialism. AIDS Behav. 24, 2776–2780 (2020).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Cheon, B. K., Melani, I. & Hong, Y. How USA-centric is psychology? An archival study of implicit assumptions of generalizability of findings to human nature based on origins of study samples. Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci. 11, 928–937 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Swire-Thompson, B., DeGutis, J. & Lazer, D. Searching for the backfire effect: measurement and design considerations. J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 9, 286–299 (2020).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wang, Y., McKee, M., Torbica, A. & Stuckler, D. Systematic literature review on the spread of health-related misinformation on social media. Soc. Sci. Med. 240, 112552 (2019).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Bastani, P. & Bahrami, M. A. COVID-19 related misinformation on social media: a qualitative study from Iran. J. Med. Internet Res. https://doi.org/10.2196/18932 (2020).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Arata, N. B., Torneo, A. R. & Contreras, A. P. Partisanship, political support, and information processing among President Rodrigo Duterte’s supporters and non-supporters. Philippine Political Sci. J. 41, 73–105 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Islam, A. K. M. N., Laato, S., Talukder, S. & Sutinen, E. Misinformation sharing and social media fatigue during COVID-19: an affordance and cognitive load perspective. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 159, 120201 (2020).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Xu, Y., Wong, R., He, S., Veldre, A. & Andrews, S. Is it smart to read on your phone? The impact of reading format and culture on the continued influence of misinformation. Mem. Cogn. 48, 1112–1127 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Lyons, B., Mérola, V., Reifler, J. & Stoeckel, F. How politics shape views toward fact-checking: evidence from six European countries. Int. J. Press Politics 25, 469–492 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Porter, E. & Wood, T. J. The global effectiveness of fact-checking: evidence from simultaneous experiments in Argentina, Nigeria, South Africa, and the United Kingdom. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 118, e2104235118 (2021).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Chang, E. P. & Pillai, R. The effects of subtle misinformation in news headlines. J. Exp. Psychol. Appl. 20, 323–335 (2014).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Powell, D., Bian, L. & Markman, E. M. When intents to educate can misinform: inadvertent paltering through violations of communicative norms. PLoS ONE 15, e0230360 (2020).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Rich, P. R. & Zaragoza, M. S. The continued influence of implied and explicitly stated misinformation in news reports. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Memory Cogn. 42, 62–74 (2016).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Shen, C. et al. Fake images: the effects of source intermediary and digital media literacy on contextual assessment of image credibility online. N. Media Soc. 21, 438–463 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Barari, S., Lucas, C. & Munger, K. Political deepfakes are as credible as other fake media and (sometimes) real media. OSF https://osf.io/cdfh3/ (2021).

  • Young, D. G., Jamieson, K. H., Poulsen, S. & Goldring, A. Fact-checking effectiveness as a function of format and tone: evaluating FactCheck.org and FlackCheck.org. Journal. Mass. Commun. Q. 95, 49–75 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Vraga, E. K., Kim, S. C. & Cook, J. Testing logic-based and humor-based corrections for science health, and political misinformation on social media. J. Broadcasting Electron. Media 63, 393–414 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Dunn, A. G. et al. Mapping information exposure on social media to explain differences in HPV vaccine coverage in the United States. Vaccine 35, 3033–3040 (2017).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Marinescu, I. E., Lawlor, P. N. & Kording, K. P. Quasi-experimental causality in neuroscience and behavioural research. Nat. Hum. Behav. 2, 891–898 (2018).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Van Bavel, J. J. et al. Political psychology in the digital (mis)information age: a model of news belief and sharing. Soc. Issues Policy Rev. 15, 84–113 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Kuklinski, J. H., Quirk, P. J., Jerit, J., Schwieder, D. & Rich, R. F. Misinformation and the currency of democratic citizenship. J. Politics 62, 790–816 (2000).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Shelke, S. & Attar, V. Source detection of rumor in social network: a review. Online Soc. Netw. Media 9, 30–42 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Brady, W. J., Gantman, A. P. & Van Bavel, J. J. Attentional capture helps explain why moral and emotional content go viral. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 149, 746–756 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Brady, W. J., Wills, J. A., Jost, J. T., Tucker, J. A. & Van Bavel, J. J. Emotion shapes the diffusion of moralized content in social networks. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114, 7313–7318 (2017).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Fazio, L. Pausing to consider why a headline is true or false can help reduce the sharing of false news. Harv. Kennedy Sch. Misinformation Rev. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-009 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Pennycook, G., McPhetres, J., Zhang, Y., Lu, J. G. & Rand, D. G. Fighting COVID-19 misinformation on social media: experimental evidence for a scalable accuracy-nudge intervention. Psychol. Sci. 31, 770–780 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Pew Research Center. Many Americans Say Made-up News is a Critical Problem That Needs to be Fixed https://www.journalism.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/PJ_2019.06.05_Misinformation_FINAL-1.pdf (2019).

  • Pew Research Center. Many Americans Believe Fake News is Sowing Confusion https://www.journalism.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/2016/12/PJ_2016.12.15_fake-news_FINAL.pdf (2016).

  • Altay, S., Araujo, Ede & Mercier, H. If this account is true, it is most enormously wonderful: interestingness-if-true and the sharing of true and false news. Digital Journal. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2021.1941163 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Brady, W. J., Crockett, M. J. & Van Bavel, J. J. The MAD model of moral contagion: The role of motivation, attention, and design in the spread of moralized content online. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 15, 978–1010 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Crockett, M. J. Moral outrage in the digital age. Nat. Hum. Behav. 1, 769–771 (2017).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Petersen, M. B., Osmundsen, M. & Arceneaux, K. The “need for chaos” and motivations to share hostile political rumors. psyarxiv https://psyarxiv.com/6m4ts/ (2020).

  • Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Jayawardana, K. & Mladenovic, A. Refutations of equivocal claims: no evidence for an ironic effect of counterargument number. J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 8, 98–107 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Skurnik, I., Yoon, C., Park, D. C. & Schwarz, N. How warnings about false claims become recommendations. J. Consum. Res. 31, 713–724 (2005).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Schwarz, N., Sanna, L. J., Skurnik, I. & Yoon, C. Metacognitive experiences and the intricacies of setting people straight: implications for debiasing and public information campaigns. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 39, 127–161 (2007).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Cameron, K. A. et al. Patient knowledge and recall of health information following exposure to facts and myths message format variations. Patient Educ. Counsel. 92, 381–387 (2013).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Wahlheim, C. N., Alexander, T. R. & Peske, C. D. Reminders of everyday misinformation statements can enhance memory for and belief in corrections of those statements in the short term. Psychol. Sci. 31, 1325–1339 (2020).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Autry, K. S. & Duarte, S. E. Correcting the unknown: negated corrections may increase belief in misinformation. Appl. Cognit. Psychol. 35, 960–975 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Pluviano, S., Watt, C. & Della Sala, S. Misinformation lingers in memory: failure of three pro-vaccination strategies. PLoS ONE 12, e0181640 (2017).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Taber, C. S. & Lodge, M. Motivated skepticism in the evaluation of political beliefs. Am. J. Political. Sci. 50, 755–769 (2006).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Nyhan, B., Reifler, J. & Ubel, P. A. The hazards of correcting myths about health care reform. Med. Care 51, 127–132 (2013).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Hart, P. S. & Nisbet, E. C. Boomerang effects in science communication. Commun. Res. 39, 701–723 (2011).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Swire-Thompson, B., Miklaucic, N., Wihbey, J., Lazer, D. & DeGutis, J. Backfire effects after correcting misinformation are strongly associated with reliability. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. (in the press).

  • Zhou, J. Boomerangs versus javelins: how polarization constrains communication on climate change. Environ. Politics 25, 788–811 (2016).


    Google Scholar
     


  • Source link

    Related Articles

    Leave a Reply

    Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

    Back to top button